Group Dynamics in Sport Psychology
David Chirko, A.B.
Chirkoart.ca
Sudbury, Canada
Baseball is 90 percent mental. The other half is physical.
Yogi Berra (Ugur, 2025)
History, Definitions
Gary R. VandenBos (2015) defines the term “sport psychology” (now dated), as the molding and implementing of psychological theory for comprehension and amelioration of personal behavior in sport. Sport psychologists are engrossed in any of the following realms of psychology: educational–helping players achieve utmost performance via attentional focus and imagery; clinical–similar to the aforementioned, but also addressing dysthymia and eating disorders, etc.; or, research–nonclinical study of movement, where application of kinesiological methodologies and theory development are involved.
Sport psychology differs from exercise psychology, which branched out into another field, transcending issues of performance in sport psychology, where well-being and health are now highlighted through specific programs of physical activity.
Exercise psychology includes exercise science and psychology, where the ramifications of exercise participation are studied, and is now united with health psychology. The latter observes interactions of behavioral, cognitive, environmental, psychophysiological and social dimensions pertaining to how they affect preservation of health; or, biological, wed with psychological, studies creating interventions employed to preclude illness; or psychological and physical status appraisal before and after psychological and medical treatments.
Herein this discourse are mainly various sport psychologists, expatiating on sport, exercise, and health.
Applying Group Psychology to Sports
Mark R. Beauchamp and Mark Eys (2014) remark that, concerning group dynamics in sport psychology, in exercise and sport human behavior is entrenched in groups, where players’ feelings, thoughts, and perceptions impact and are impacted by other members of the group. In their work they cover the self, and leadership, in groups; group environment and motivation; and socio-environmental issues in groups.
Beauchamp, Ben Jackson, and David Lavallee (2014) further asseverate that, “The…understanding, and attending to…the diverse personalities that comprise…teams has a rich tradition in social psychology” (p. 208).
Perry’s Work: Team Groups
Tuckman Model
John L. Perry (2016), describes a popular model in group dynamics inaugurated by Bruce W. Tuckman (1965), called the “linear perspective of group development” (or “Bruce Tuckman’s Stages Model”). Such is comprised of four stages, which are: “forming”—members of the team making acquaintances, ratifying identities and discovering team goals; “storming”–players competing for team roles and status, leading to conflict; “norming”—team norms involving behavior, values, and rules being enshrined; and “performing”—all players operating interdependently as the team functions in a united fashion. He also states that, in 1977, Tuckman and Mary Ann C. Jensen annexed a fifth stage: “adjourning” (or “mourning”)—which is the team dissolving (if this is applicable, like in the Olympics) after its mission is reached.
Synergy
Perry, extrapolating much from Tuckman regarding group dynamics in team sport, first speaks of synergy, that is, the team’s combined efforts which are tantamount to the individual skills, but when compared can vary. “Social loafing” (p. 273) is the opposite of synergy where, through a diffusive process, individuals in a group might diminish one another’s efforts. To preclude social loafing accountability must be enforced via the social norm, with not just the coach, but the whole team, apprising the loafer of his dearth of effort. Perry says that new groups embrace and cavil over such performance, before placements are established and all involved are working together cooperatively.
Group Norms
Perry states that team players frequently mold wholesome group norms, which must be contingent with what behaviors are, or are not, accepted. A new coach might find this arduous to alter without changing group personnel. He touches on the gestalt, where the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, ascertained via how groups coalesce and ratify roles.
Cohesion
This process is dynamic and based on the knack of a group to solidify, wherein instrumental objectives are pursued, which is called “task cohesion.” This is because all players strive for, and are inculcated with, the responsibility of achieving the same shared goal. Coordination is key here. Nevertheless, variability within the team membership can ensue and lead matters awry. Thus, the relationships of practicing in unison must be encouraged. Tasks are then mandated and when achieved, for instance, in prescribed time frames, success can then be obtained.
There is, almost as important as task cohesion, that which fulfills an individual player’s member affective state, termed “social cohesion,” which assists the team in remaining together and being felicitous, via socialization, in the dressing room and through public fellowship.
Other ways to acquire total cohesion are creating a positive climate (making players eager to enter group training), accountability to lessen social loafing, and seeking group identity. The latter accomplished by all members displaying pride, donning the same jersey, singing a club song, exhibiting a moniker and badged apparel, all bringing together the fans and club as a whole.
Group Life Cycle
Finally, Perry maintains teams change on a regular basis; their life cycle continually concluding by adjournment, then freshly resuscitating. Because of this, a team’s morphing through careful planning and turnover will not be so copious or unpleasant. Therein, older players are encouraged to move on. However, if they are “strong characters” (p. 272) and their nexus with earlier incarnations of the club are not propitious, positive team evolvement could fail.
Butt’s Work: Group Competition
Dorcas Susan Butt (1976) stresses the dichotomy between “competition,” and “cooperation,” elements in sports. She contends it was demonstrated by Morton Deutsch (1949) in a study based on the solving of different problems, where college students comprising the competitive group had to achieve the highest average in order to receive an award if they succeeded. Here it was ascertained that members were more egoistic, merely wishing to outdo others on the team, and exuded more group conflict. Insecurity, rancor and disruption were commonplace.
In the cooperative group they would compete against four other groups confronted with identical issues, ranked by their effectiveness in getting these issues resolved, with college grades being the incentive. They were more coordinated as a group and individually exhibited more insight and comprehension of their behavior, as well as being able to reciprocate with one another more, resolving contentions, and performing at a higher caliber.
Butt also states that group support of athletes is crucial to their advancement. The athlete must know they will always retain their earlier support base and personal attachments. During travel to any competition or in training, having devotees and fellow athletes present is essential. As their skills are honed from adolescence on, they must identify with fresh coaches and groups. However, the sports organization involved might not always foster smooth transitions where they developed their mettle. For example, as they rise to the top in their field, their home country may not exalt the particular sport they represent. Butt remarks that, “…although the sports structure is present, it often fails to provide…models…personnel and…social support…at each level by the athlete” (p. 139).
Rest, Recovery, Psychological Resilience
Psychiatrist Brook Choulet (2025) says that physical and mental recovery are just as essential as competing and training. Teams can be hampered by burnout because of physiological and psychological requirements. Routines embracing recovery must be strategized, enabling players to perform at optimum levels during the season, precluding burnout and elongating the careers of players on any team. The time zones they journey in, deprivation of sleep, and paucity of familial support can be stressful, affecting cognitive abilities like decision making and reaction times, and control of emotions, when on the field. She alludes to fellow sport psychiatrist, Rolando Gonzalez, who believes that recovery is crucial because it affords players the chance to focus, increase stamina, maintain training load, repair muscle, and rest, making them and the team more competitive. Moreover, it is a deliberate process combining mental decompression, psychological resilience training, sleep optimization, and strategic workload management. Choulet quotes Gonzalez, who, regarding the supreme skill of psychological resilience, which leads to highest performance, defines it as “The ability to cope, adapt, and recover from stressful situations.” Further, that, “Cognitive reframing, visualization, and breathwork…maintain focus and…resilience in high pressure situations.”
Nick Power (2024) explains that the above mental conditioning experts complement: the athletes themselves, who train laboriously; the coaches, who administer their technical expertise in order to make players display their best performance; and lastly, the athletic trainers and physical therapists who ensure players are in a salubrious and peak state to be prepared, and can remain, on the field.
Group Dynamics for a Specific Team
Power (2024) highlights Chad Bohling, who has been with the New York Yankees a score of years, as a Director of Optimal Performance cum Director of Mental Conditioning. He actively supports the players in all facets of how they perform on the field and beyond, which could apply to any player on any team in any sport.
Performance and Mental Conditioning Coordinator Coach for the Yankees, Lauren Johnson, worked under Bohling. Johnson explains that mental conditioning assists players in cultivating a special mindset via mental toughness, which is consistently performing at optimum level, whether winning or losing. The team nurtures how they acquire focus when challenged, confide in what they can accomplish, and ratify a routine that is easily repeated.
IP (2024) says Johnson and the Yankees address psychological wellbeing, embolden mental preparedness, and assist players moving from rookie to pro to retiree, helping the team as a group succeed.
Regrouped Management
Nina Norman (2023) states, owners like the Yankees’ George Steinbrenner led a successful business prior to involvement in sport enabling him to apply corporate principles to the team. The most skilled people for executive levels were then sagaciously selected, and just below that were the various managers. Norman asserts that an unstable manager—like “Chaos…the rule” Billy Martin (1975-1988 – hired and fired five times; winning two pennants, and one World Series), can cause eternal havoc, unlike Joe Torre (1996-2007; winning six pennants, and four World Series), who added far-reaching inspiration. Subsequently, players must cultivate rapprochement with all levels.
Norman declares, “…a…baseball team is only as good as its farm system” and that this group has been important for the Yankees; moreover, most of their superstar players, like Lou Gehrig, Derek Jeter, Mickey Mantle, and Bernie Williams (and Aaron Judge) were not exorbitantly paid free agents.
Group diversity is another aspect of Yankee heritage, augmenting community image, as citizenship and comportment become essential.
Team Group Rebuilding and Leadership
Archysport (2024)1 avers that, as the Yankees aspire to once again become a dynasty, they should evolve from a team of individuals to more of a collective powerhouse containing indomitable spirit, with a stable of numerous leaders—where the team as a group is always primary on the agenda.
He explains that discussions on this critical issue can be augmented by exemplifying how leadership and unity have been created. This, via performance on the turf, player quotes, and interactions with one another, emboldening a new direction in culture that is resilient and cohesive. Also examined how this new team culture is distinguished from those of the past, as well as other successful teams, by focusing on the strong qualities in present group culture. This upcoming new movement forges a strong and united legacy for future generations. All this enables the Yankees to improve their group dynamic methodology in order to rebuild their team.
Archysport asseverates leadership is tantamount to talent in helping a player acclimatize in a multifarious team atmosphere. He must inspire the whole team, where group unity leads to success. And a player must be able to communicate off the field as proficiently as he does with a bat, ball, and glove on the field. Norman (2023) extols strong leadership at all group levels because it is germane to team accomplishment and character. However, a superstar is not equivalent to being a leader.
Conclusions
Regarding sport related psychology, adumbrated were terms falling under sundry rubrics, defined by their developmental manifestations and identifiability. (VandenBos, 2015).
Group dynamics was claimed to be inextricably involved in team sport (Beauchamp & Eys, 2014). Also, players’ personalities directly affected their behavior on their team (Beauchamp, Jackson & Lavallee, 2014).
Group development via involvement of models were highlighted (Tuckman, 1965; Tuckman & Jensen, 1977),
Synergy, norms, roles, cohesion, goals, and cycles were verified (Perry, 2016).
The push and pull between “competition” and “cooperation” in team athletes was illustrated (Butt, 1976; Deutsch, 1949).
Rest and recovery, to eschew burnout, was exemplified (Choulet, 2025; Power, 2024).
Group dynamics was applied to a specific team: the New York Yankees, where coaching and mental conditioning was found crucial (Power, 2024; IP, 2024).
Rebuilding the Yankees as a group was likened to operating a corporate business, with an effective front office, complemented by humility in managers (Norman, 2023).
For the Yankees, a resilient, unified group culture was found foremost–with spirit and leadership going the distance–remembering that superstars were not always the best leaders (Archysport, 2024; Norman, 2023).
Notes
1.A day after this article appeared Christian Walker was signed elsewhere. Nevertheless, the information presented could apply to any player and team. Concerning the Yankees’ aspirations of returning to a World Series dynasty, they in fact did earlier, October 19th, 2024, win the American League pennant for the first time since 2009, but lost the World Series.
References
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