Collective Effervescence: Bonding for Better or Worse
Jillian Pestana, B.A.
Doctoral Candidate
Department of Professional Psychology, George Washington University
Abstract
This paper examines collective effervescence, a term introduced by Durkheim (1995) to conceptualize the heightened emotional energy and unity that emerge during shared group experiences and rituals. Collective effervescence promotes social bonding, trust, and solidarity through physical proximity, focused attention, and interpersonal synchrony. While these processes play an important role in fostering positive group identification, they can also contribute to identity fusion, in which personal and social identities become intertwined. Positive outcomes of collective effervescence include success in group psychotherapy, cultural rituals, and political marches, whereas harmful outcomes may include conformity, loss of individuality, and extreme pro-group behaviors. The focus of this paper is to consider the prosocial and therapeutic benefits of collective effervescence (eg; empathy, empowerment, and belonging) alongside its potential to produce coercion and harm. It argues that collective effervescence should be seen as both a unifying and dangerous force in order for it to cultivate connection and solidarity without infringing upon personal autonomy.
Keywords: collective effervescence, rituals, group identification, group therapy, identity fusion, bonding, synchrony
Introduction
Human connection is often characterized by a physical coming together followed by interaction and coordination, whether this be through shared attention, emotion, or movement (Durkheim, 1995). This synchrony brings people into conscious alignment with one another, forming a collective space which promotes intimacy and deeper bonding (Pizarro et al., 2022). Through this process, our individual lived experiences begin to merge into a synchronized and unified rhythm, and a new and amplified sense of belonging and energy may arise (Pizarro et. al, 2022). This sets the stage for what Durkheim (1995) termed collective effervescence: the very specific feeling that may arise in group interactions, marked by an intensification of shared experience, emotional energy, and emotional and/or ritualistic synchrony (Liebst, 2019; Gefland et al., 2020). The experience of collective effervescence is central to the development of group identity and membership, as it is inherently intimate and promotes social bonding, group trust, solidarity, and collective consciousness (Liebst, 2019; Rose, 2024). It is generally dependent on the presence of a few key ingredients: physical proximity, a distinguished location, focused attention, and synchrony of mood and/ or movement (Liebst, 2019). These traits, together, drastically increase perceived bonding and positive emotions. They facilitate empowerment through the group at an intensity which would be individually impossible, and bring members to feel increasingly confident of themselves, their roles, and their groups as a whole. In this way, collective effervescence facilitates a level of self-transcendence and transformation. The individual becomes more than just the self—they become part of something larger, part of a morally important and powerful cause or experience (Rose, 2024).
The sheer weight of collective effervescence gives it immense power for influencing, fusing, and mobilizing group members—side effects which are easily felt and witnessed by observers (Rose, 2024; Pizarro et al., 2022). This power, however, can be harnessed and wielded for a variety of purposes, some of which may ultimately harm the group and individual members. While Durkheim rooted his development of collective effervescence in the study of religious rituals, this is just one of the many social contexts in which this social phenomenon comes into play (1995). Collective effervescence has an essential role in a wide range of interpersonal settings and can deeply impact group members and the state of the group as a whole, whether this be for better or for worse.
For Better: Group Identification
The benefits of collective effervescence are expansive, including enhanced social cohesion, shared identity, trust, communal sharing, empowerment, collective consciousness, and group solidarity (Liebst, 2019; Rose, 2024; Pizarro et al., 2022). These positive components can be seen in sociopolitical demonstrations or protests, national celebrations, group therapy sessions, marathons, religious experiences, conferences, festivals, concerts, funerals, and many communities and cultures (Liebst, 2019; Rose, 2024; Pizarro et al., 2022). Collective effervescence lends itself to group identification, a type of social bonding characterized by “a
de-emphasis on personal identity and a heightened sense of the relevant social group identity” (Kavanagh et al., 2018, p.461). Group identification may also be understood as any sense of belonging to a social, cultural, or other community (Gómez et al., 2025). Some theorize that group identification is promoted by frequent, repeated, low-arousal rituals (Kavanagh et al., 2018). Many studies suggest that holding a group identity is associated with psychological well-being, longevity, and positive health outcomes (Kyprianides et al., 2019). Identification
with a group has also been linked to positive interpersonal relations, strong coping and adjustment skills, and overall life satisfaction. It serves as a protective factor against depression and anxiety, as it boosts one’s self-esteem through an increase in positive social identities and social support (Kyprianides et al., 2019). Individuals may begin to experience a sense of belonging and may feel safe in their connections to co-members.
Collective effervescence, in the context of group identification, can have incredible prosocial and therapeutic effects (Rose, 2024). Group psychotherapy settings foster positive outcomes through co-presence, emotional synchrony, and eventually group consciousness (Pizarro et al., 2022). Clinicians may help in cultivating collective effervescence by setting expectations around empathic engagement and collective empowerment, and by demonstrating the universality of experience (Marmarosh et. al, 2022). This may show up in the therapeutic space through increased sensitivity, awareness, and members’ “I-sharing”: when a person sees themself as having the exact same momentary experience as another person (Rose, 2024, p.4). This phenomenon falls within Perceived Emotional Synchrony (PES); the broader term for combined synchrony across many domains of experience and emotion (Pizarro et al., 2022).
“I-sharing” has the effect of increased intimacy, trust, and comfort among individuals due to real or perceived similarities in identity (Rose, 2024, p.4). A shared group identity helps in facilitating a sense of harmony, connectedness, and openness among patients, as well as an increase in prosocial behaviors and attitudes (Rose, 2024). In group psychotherapy, this may look like a strong attachment to the group, or potentially the use of we instead of I (Marmarosh et. al, 2022; Rose, 2024). Clinicians may note a decrease in defensiveness among group members, as well as an increase in empathic engagement and communication (Rose, 2024).
Collective rituals, such as those found in religious or cultural traditions, may also evoke these effects while promoting creativity, intense prosocial motivations, and visible bodily responses (e.g.; tears or goosebumps) (Rose, 2024). Part of this effect comes from ritualistic synchrony, a phenomenon which includes “synchronous dancing, singing, chanting, drumming or marching” and has been shown to have a strong positive effect on cooperation, coordination, and group cohesion through past studies (Gefland et al., 2020, p.1; Wiltermuth and Heath, 2009; Jackson et al., 2018). For example, Wiltermuth and Heath (2009) used validated coordination tasks and self-report scales, whereas Jackson et al. (2018) used spatial tracking and performance metrics to measure these outcomes. Sociopolitical demonstrations also ignite collective effervescence by uniting participants through shared goals and emotions. A cross-sectional study by Zumeta (2020) found that participants in a social march experienced significantly higher emotional and behavioral synchrony compared to observers. Through these group activities, individuals reinforce their shared beliefs and group identities while boosting positive emotions and prosocial intentions via ritualistic synchrony (Rose, 2024; Zumeta et al., 2020). Each of these examples induces collective effervescence and necessitates frequent, low intensity, rituals (eg; weekly therapy sessions, worship/ prayer, meetings/ forums), prompting the development of healthy group identification. They may provide avenues by which individuals can
self-conceptualize, interpersonally bond, and mentalize without harm to self or others (Gefland et al., 2020).
For Worse: Extreme Identity Fusion
Some report that collective effervescence may alternatively lead to extreme social bonding or identity fusion: the process by which the personal self becomes intertwined with the social self (Gómez et al., 2025; Kavanagh et al., 2018). Gómez and colleagues (2025) define it as
“a synergistic union with a group, individual, or cause” (p.118) driving costly pro-group behavior, as seen in battalions during revolutions and wars (Jong et. al, 2015) . Identity fusion can produce intense positive emotions associated with belonging, confidence, and unity, while fostering strong relational ties, solidarity, and commitment to one’s group (Pizarro et al., 2022). Alternatively, it can result in the depersonalization of the individual, such that they become one with the group—as is seen in cults and other extremist subcultures (Gómez et al., 2025; Kavanagh et al., 2018). Strongly fused persons may begin to overidealize, glorify, and idolize other members, offering unwavering trust and lifelong loyalty to the ingroup (Gómez et al., 2025). Identity fusion is theoretically produced by infrequent, highly climactic rituals, as well as other forms of bodily and verbal synchrony (Kavanagh et al., 2018; Rose, 2024). These rituals are typically scary, painful, or otherwise intensely negative, and are sometimes referred to as ‘rites of terror’ (Jong et al., 2015). They can be seen in military events, tribe or gang initiations, fraternity hazings, and specific religious or cultural traditions (Kavanagh et al., 2018; Gómez et al., 2025). Many studies have found that identity fusion is a strong predictor of harmful
pro-group behaviors, significantly more so than other forms of social bonding—including group identification (Gómez et al., 2025; Jong et al., 2015). These pro-group behaviors can manifest in the form of “violence, self-sacrifice, and retribution against outgroup members,” and may be demonstrated by cults, political extremist groups, and other social camps related to religion, freedom, or personal values (Gómez et al., 2025, p.120; Kavanagh et al., 2018). Identity fusion is challenging in that once established, it can be difficult to dismantle or change due to loss aversion (Gómez et al., 2025). It also may increase the likelihood of enmeshment, coercion, and other harmful dynamics among group members (Gómez et al., 2025).
In this context, the potential risks of collective effervescence and ritualistic synchrony are clear. Past research has found that harmful synchrony can produce conformity, aggression, destructive obedience, and groupthink (Gefland et al., 2020). This is evidenced by the many accounts of former cult members, who describe emotionally charged rituals and strong social pressures that ultimately suppress independent thought and erase individuality altogether (Carstairs, 2025, p.2). In rites of terror, collective effervescence is deliberately facilitated and misattributed from a natural feeling that arises through shared human experience to a direct product of one’s devotion to a special or unique fusion target. In cults more specifically, this target is often the leader, who intentionally manipulates members by facilitating and encouraging identity fusion within them (Carstairs, 2025). Individuals who lack a strong sense of self or
self-esteem may be especially vulnerable to these processes, as they may join a group in search of community, and instead be met with traumatization, humiliation, and ‘purification’ (Carstairs, 2025). Climactic collective rituals, coercive control, collective effervescence, and cognitive vulnerability create the perfect storm for identity fusion.
Rites of terror serve as potential pathways to this outcome, hence their utilization in environments where conformity, identification, and devotion are desirable (Kavanagh et al., 2018). Past research by Kavanagh and colleagues (2018) suggests that positive experiences during rites of terror—as measured by affective response scales—were found to significantly correlate with identity fusion. Despite immediate reactions, the trauma produced by these shared rituals may be so all-encompassing that individuals begin to make sense of their personal identity with their newfound social identity, serving as an explanatory factor for extreme pro-group behaviors (Jong et al., 2015). To elaborate, people may follow the norms and ideologies of their in-group, reflect on their own experiences and behaviors, integrate this self-reflection into their
self-concept, and begin acting within the realm of their new identity— sometimes even becoming the perpetrators of their own past traumas (Jong et al., 2015). In other words, they become self-fulfilling prophecies. Extreme historical examples of this phenomenon include Nazi soldiers, Japanese kamikaze pilots, and suicide bombers, whereas more common examples include college fraternities, religious sects, militaries, cults, and sports teams (Jong et al., 2015, p.2).
Navigating Identity & Bonding
While collective effervescence plays a vital role across many social contexts, its power to profoundly shape the beliefs and behaviors of individuals and groups—for better or for worse—should be considered. In clinical spaces, it is often utilized for good; Group psychotherapists may employ its raw emotionality to elicit cognitive, relational, and affective changes amongst group members (Pizarro et al., 2022; Rose, 2024). By incorporating structured practices like gratitude reflections, peer modeling, and guided interpersonal feedback, clinicians translate the group’s shared emotional intensity into opportunities for hope, emotional expression, and social learning (Marmarosh et al., 2022; Joyce et al., 2011). In this way, collective effervescence can foster trust, community, empowerment, solidarity, and group identification (Kyprianides et al., 2019; Rose, 2024). On the other hand, it can facilitate identity fusion which may result in deindividuation, closed-mindedness, and harmful pro-group behaviors (Pizarro et al., 2022; Kavanagh et al., 2018). Still, even the damage caused by harmful groups can be healed through the bonds of new, healthy ones (Pignotti, 2000). Identity fusion can be defused and individuals can be re-integrated through connection and social support, as evidenced by therapy groups for ex-cult members, survivors of religious trauma, or even those in substance abuse recovery (Pignotti, 2000). Though the paths to these identity fusion and group
identification differ greatly, they each draw on the same uniquely human capacity to experience and interpret collective effervescence. Collective effervescence reveals the inherently social nature of the human psyche, indicating that our need for bonding and connection is inextricable and indispensable to us, despite its potential costs. We cannot avoid it, and therefore have only one choice: to navigate it with intentionality, discernment, and self-reverence (Gefland et al., 2020).
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